1. Introduction

Biodiversity consists of species diversity, genetic diversity, ecosystem diversity and the diversity of ecological processes[1],[2]. Species diversity may be analyzed as a coexistence of different life objects within taxa and in a territory[3]. Globally important biological diversity territories are called hot spot territories. One half of all plant species in the planet grow in 34 hot spots, but not yet destroyed vegetation of these territories occupies only 2.3 % of the Earth[4]. The total species diversity of vascular plants on the earth is estimated between 310,000 to 420,000[5]. Worldwide between 35,000 and 70,000 medicinal plants provide a real alternative for primary health care system[6]. Due to multiple ecological regions, diverse climatic and soil conditions more than 6000 species of higher plants is reported to exist in Pakistan (Haq et al 2010), including 2000 medicinal plant species[7].

Pakistan is under tremendous ecological stress due to its population explosion, unplanned urbanization, deforestation and overexploitation of natural resources[8]. Pakistan with its less than 4 % natural forests resources is rapidly declining at a rate of 4 – 6 % per year[9], results in a decline in species and genetic diversity of population[10].

The Allai Valley is located in the Western Himalayan Province of District Battagram between 34° 44` and 34° 58` N and 72° 54` and 73° 15` E with a total area of 56081 ha including agricultural, wasteland, forest and alpine range. The width of Allai valley varies from 0.5 km to 5 km and is accessible from Besham via Kond Saiyidan and Thakot located on Karakoram Highway[1],[11].

The Allai Valley is bounded by Kohistan valley in the north, by vast pasture meadows of Chaur in the east, by the Nandiar valley in the south and by the river Indus in the west. The Allai Valley is generally rough and mountainous having variable slopes from gentle to precipitous and ranges in altitude from 545m at Thakot to 4690m above mean sea level at Sukaisar (GPS reading). Allai Khuwarr the main stream of the area to which all the small streams from different sub valleys joins at different locations, runs from East to West and joins River Indus near Besham at Kond Saiyidan. The nullahs, which feed the main stream, are Jabbar, Gantar, Batila and Pashto Khuwarrs.

The present study was mainly aimed:

To e explore the species diversity of the flora of Allai valley.

To document plant uses, rate of consumption and availability profile of selected plants.

To recommend ways for sustainable utilization of the local resources, for introducing effective conservation measures in the area.

2. Materials and Methods

Field trips to various parts of the selected area of Allai Valley were undertaken from 1st Sep 2009 to 30th Aug 2011 to collect the information and specimens to be used for future reference. The segments which were visited repeatedly include Banna, Biari, Batila, Barkandorkai, Chaur, Gangwal, Gantar, Jabar, Kanai, Pashto, Rashung, Sakargah and Thakot. The informations were collected from people of different ages belonging to different sub localities. The identification was done with the help of Flora of Pakistan[12],[13],[14].

3. Results

A total of 415 species of vascular plants, belonging to 111 families were collected and identified from Allai Valley. Pteridophytes were represented by 9 families and 23 species, Gymnosperms by 3 families and 8 species, Angiosperms by 99 families and 384 species. The well-represented families were Asteraceae contributing 41 species, Rosaceae by 29 species, Labiatae and Papilionaceae by 22 species each; Poaceae followed them by 16 species.

Among the 415 species reported, 246 species were herbs, 75 shrubs, 68 trees, 06 climbing shrubs, 18 climbers and 03 epiphytes. The plants were classified according to local, traditional and economic value. Most of the plant species were used for multipurpose. Based on local uses, there were 185 medicinal plants, 21 were poisonous, 261 were fodder species, 126 were fuel wood species, 37 were timber yielding plants, 43 were thatching and sheltering plants, 31 were hedge plants, 73 were wild ornamental, 100 were weeds, 48 species yield edible fruits and seeds, 43 were used as vegetable and pot herb.

The conservation status of the vascular plants of Allai valley shows that 5 plant species are critically endangered locally. The critically endangered species include; Acer caesium, Betula utilis, Dioscorea deltoidea, Taxus wallichiana and Ulmus wallichiana.

3.1. Forest Types

According to the classification of forest types of Pakistan coupled with ecological condition, most of the forest of Allai Valley fall under Moist Temperate category of the internationally known Western Himalayan Moist Temperate ecology[3]. On the basis of available indicator species the Allai Valley forests can further be classified into the following six categories:

3.1.1. Tropical Sub Humid Forest

It is a scrub forest, consisting mainly of dry bushy shrubs and small trees, and is found up to an elevation of 900 m, consisting of small trees and thorny shrubs. Representative areas of such forest are Thakot to Kond Saiyidan. Acacia modesta, Mallotus philippensis, Albizia lbizia lebbeck, Bauhinia variegata, Dalbergia sisso and Ficus racemosa are the dominant trees of the forest. The common shrubs are Dodonaea viscosa, Justicia adhatoda, Rubus fructicousus and Myrtus royleanus.

3.1.2. Sub Tropical Chir-Pine Forests

Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest is found at altitudinal zone ranging between 900 to 1500 m, occupying an area of 133ha at Chiran. Broad-leaved associates in these forests are Quercus incana. The undergrowth consists of Woodfordia fruticosa, Indigofera heterantha, Berberis lyceum and Rosa moschata. Ground flora mainly consists of grasses.

3.1.3. The Moist Temperate Blue Pine Forest

Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana) locally known as Pewouch occurs at the altitudinal zone ranging between 1500 to 2300m. The blue pine forests are found in Pashto, Batila and Gantar. The broad-leaved associates in these forests are Juglans regia, Quercus dilatata, Quercus incana, Rhododendron arboreum that are found singly scattered or in groups in moist places. Undergrowth consists of Vibernum cotonifolium, Cotoneaster microphylla, Cotoneaster nummalaria, Sarcococca saligna, Berberis lycium, Indigofera heterantha, Rubus fructicousus and Rosa moschata, which are frequently found. Ground flora consists of Paeonia emodi, Fragaria nubicola and Viola species.

3.1.4. Mixed Coniferous Forests

The predominant species of this forest are Silver fir (Abies pindrow) and Spruce (Picea smithiana) along with Blue pine. Mixed coniferous forests occur between elevations of 2300 to 2800m in Shaeed Kandao, Shakoora, Ulao Khadman, Kage oba, Loedarra, Rashung, Raindarra, Jabbar, Koela, Balucha, Gantar, batila, Baleja and Pashto. The composition of the forest is strongly influenced by aspect. Hot southern slopes contain more of blue pine while on northern aspect Silver firs are predominant. The forest is generally heterogeneous in nature having mixed age classes. The broad-leaved associates are Quercus dilatata, Juglans regia, Aesculus indica, Prunus padus and Acer species. Undergrowth consists of Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Berberis sp, Spiraea vaccinifolia, Lonicera quinquelocularis and Vibernum species. Ground flora consists of Fragaria nubicola, Podophyllum emodi, Paeonia emodi, Geranium wallichianum, Skimmia laureola, and Euphorbia species.

3.1.5. Pure Fir and Spruce Forests

Silver fir (Abies pindrow) and Spruce (Picea smithiana) locally known as “Achal” and “Kachar” respectively are usually found on the elevation ranging from 2800 to 3050 m. This type of forest is found in the compartments of Gantar, Batila and Pashto. The broad-leaved associates are Juglans regia, Aesculus indica, Prunus padus, Quercus semicarpifolia, Populus ciliata, Taxus wallichiana, Ulmus wallichiana, Cornus macrophylla and Betula utilis. Undergrowth consists of Berberis sp, Desmodium elegans, Vibernum sp, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Spiraea vaccinifolia. Ground flora consists of Ranunculus, Aquilegia, Aconitum, Skimmia, Atropa, Fragaria and Geranium species.

3.1.6. Alpine Pastures

Alpine pastures are situated to the east of Gangwal – Jabbar valley forests forming the boundary between the Hillian and Jabori forest ranges. These pastures support a large number of sheep, goats and cattle during summer. Betula utilis and Juniperus communis are found occasionally on rocky slopes.

3.2. The Ethno-botanical Use Classes

During present study it was observed that the local people use the plant resources for various purposes. On the bases of their use the plants of Allai Valley can be classified as medicinal plants, poisonous plants, fodder species, fuel wood species, timber yielding plants, thatching and sheltering plants, hedge plants, wild ornamental plants, weeds, edible fruits and seeds plants and vegetable and pot herb species. These classes are presented in Table 1.

3.2.1. Medicinal Plants

During present survey it was noted that various parts of 185 plant species are used for medicinal purpose. These include 23 ethno veterinary important plants. Some plant species are used individually, while other is in mixtures. The recipes may be in the form of fresh plant material, powder, or in the form of Paste. The powder form may be taken in small quantity along with milk or water depends on the nature of disease. The recipes prepared from these medicinal plants are generally used for curing several diseases such as asthma, cough, tonic, abdominal pain, expectorant, anthelmintic, carminative, jaundice, diarrhea, dysentery, on boils and snakebites etc. The important plants are; Acacia modesta, Aconitum heterophyllum, Acorus calamus, Ajuga bracteosa, Atropa acuminate, Berberis lycium, Mentha longifolia, Punica granatum, Podophyllum emodi, Valeriana jatamansi, Viola canescens and Zanthoxylum armatum etc. Plants important with respect to ethno veterinary use are Asparagus officinalis, Cedrus deodara, Cissampelos pareira, Cotinus coggyria, Jasminum officinale, Paeonia emodi, Podophyllum emodi, Poligonatum verticelatum, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Populus alba, Pteris cretica, Rumex dentatus, Urtica dioica and Valeriana jatamansi etc.

3.2.2. Poisonous Plants

Twenty-one plant species are poisonous to man, livestock and fishes create various diseases in them. These include whole plant of Andrachne cordifolia, the red fruits of Arisaema flavum causes numbness of tongue, vomiting and coma, leaves of Cedrella serrata to cattle, fruits of Datura innoxia and Datura stramonium, whole plant of Nerium indicum, lotus corniculatus and Urtica dioica. Persicaria stagnina and Dioscorea deltoidea are crushed and used as fish poison.

3.2.3. Fodder Plant Species

The livestock feed on 261 plant species. The fodder plant species may be used in fresh and dried form. The local people cut grass in the month of September and dried it and then fed to livestock during winter. These include Avena fatua, Agrostis hissarica, Amaranthus sp, Cyperus sp, Dactylis glomerata, Heteropogon contortus, Kyllinga brevifolia, Lygodium hazaricum, Phleum pratense, Poa infirma, Themeda anathera and Trifolium repens. The leaves of Acacia modesta, Ailanthus altissima, Alangium chinense, Betula utilis, Morus sp, Olea ferrugenea, Quercus sp and Robinia pseudo acacia are used as fodder for goats and sheep.

3.2.4. Fuel Wood Species

There are 126 plant species that are used as fuel wood and various parts like stem, branches and roots of these plants are burnt for cooking and heating purposes. Some of them are Abies pindrow, Acacia modesta, Ailanthus altissima, Aesculus indica, Alnus nitida, Bauhinia variegata, Berberis lycium, Diospyrus lotus, Dodonaea viscosa, Indigofera heterantha, Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Prunus padus, Taxus wallichiana, Ulmus wallichiana, Ficus, Morus and Quercus species.

3.2.5. Timber Yielding Plants

There are 37 timber wood species. The timber yielding plants are used in roof, doors, and windows and in furniture’s. Some of them are Abies pindrow, Aesculus indica, Diospyros lotus, Juglans regia, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Platanus orientalis and Ulmus wallichiana.

3.2.6. Thatching / Sheltering Plants

Forty three plant species are used for thatching and sheltering purposes and are placed on the roof above timbers. These include branches of Abies pindrow, Cotinus coggyria, Desmodium elegans, Deutzia staminea, Dodonaea viscosa, Indigofera heterantha, Picea smithiana, Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiana, Phragmites australis, Sarcococca saligna and Spiraea vaccinifolia.

3.2.7. Fencing and Hedge Plants

Fences and hedges are made up by 31 bushy and spiny plant species and are either cultivated on the margins of the fields and form a permanent fencing or branches of these plants are fixed in the soil for making temporary fencing. These include Acacia modesta, Berberis lycium, Caesalpinia decapitala, Gymnosporia royleana, Robinia pseudoacacia, Rosa moschata, Rubus ellipticus, Rubus fructicousus, Rubus ulmifolius, Zanthoxylum armatum, Zizyphus oxyphylla and Zizyphus vulgare.

3.2.8. Wild Ornamental Plants

There are 73 plant species that are considered as wild ornamental due to their fragrant and color of flowers in the area including Androsace hazarica, Althaea ludwigii, Aquilegia pubiflora, Delphinum vestitum, Hypericum oblongifolium, Impatiens bicolor, Inula royleana, Jasminum sp, Narcissus tazetta, Onopordum acanthium, Rosa moschata, Solanum pseudocapsicum, Spiraea vaccinifolia and Tulipa stellata.

3.2.9. Weeds

Hundred plant species are weeds that grow along cereal plants and compete for nutrients and cause less productivity of cereal crops including Conyza canadensis, Cynodon dactylon, Ipomoea eriocarpa, Ipomoea turbinata, Ranunculus arvensis, Tagetes minuta and Xanthium stromarium.

3.2.10. Plants that Yields Edible Fruits

There are 48 plants that bear edible fruits and seeds including Berberis sp, Diospyros sp, Duchesnea indica, Ficus sp, Juglans regia, Morus sp, Rubus sp, Solanum nigrum, Vitis jacquemontii and Zizyphus sp.

3.2.11. Vegetable and Potherb Species

There are 43 wild plant species that are used as vegetables and potherbs, including Allium filidens, Amaranthus viridus, Capsella bursa- pastoris, Dryopteris jaxtapostia, Lepidium, apctalum, Lepidium pinnatifidum, Medicago denticulata, Medicago lupulina, Mentha longifolia, Mentha spicata, Portulaca oleracea and Thymus linearis.

3.3. Conservation Status

During present study it was noted that 5 plant species were critically endangered locally under IUCN criteria version 3.1. These plant species fall under criteria A, B, C and D. The critically endangered species include; Acer caesium, Betula utilis, Dioscorea deltoidea, Taxus wallichiana and Ulmus wallichiana.

3.4. Major Threats to the Flora of Allai Valley

Due to increase of human population and constant unplanned overexploitation of plants for medicinal, timber, firewood, fodder and thatching purposes has damaged the vascular flora of the selected area. Other threats to the flora are loss of habitat, unplanned collection, deforestation, over grazing, erosion, change of environment, attack of pathogens and effect of introduced taxa.

4. Discussion

Plant biodiversity are precious endowment of nature upon which mankind has always been dependent. The authentic knowledge of plants is based on trial and error and passed on from one generation to another, after refining and additions[15]. The replacement of wild plants with desired cultivated crops on large scale has affected the availability of plants in their natural habitat[16]. Worldwide land cover, is altered principally by direct human use; through agriculture, pasture, forestry, and development[17], due to which natural habitats are reduced, leaving less area available for native species[18].

In some parts of the globe including Himalayan region, the humans are using plant resources very ruthlessly[19]. During the last hundred years, the area has been subjected to major structural changes leading to a decrease of about 50% of the potential forest area[9]. The loss and degradation of natural forests clearly implies a decline in species number and genetic diversity of population[10]. The moist temperate Himalayas deserve specific attention to the conservation of environment and the sustainable development of plant resources.

Recently the species diversity of vascular plant[3], medicinal flora[15] and conservation status of critically endangered and endangered species[20] were explored in Nandiar Valley, and medicinal flora of Allai Valley[1] District Battagram, Western Himalayas Pakistan. There is no such study on the species diversity of Allai Valley; therefore Allai Valley has been selected for present study.

During present study the species diversity and ethno botanical uses of 415 species of vascular plants was explored from sub tropical foothills to alpine pastures including 13 alien plant species which are naturalized and established in Allai valley. These alien plant species were introduced from other parts of Asia, Australia, Africa, Europe and America.

The people of the valley use plant resources for their various ailments. They collect plants for medicinal uses, fuel wood, fodder, timber, and many other purposes. They prepare the recipes through personal experience and ancestral prescription form same plants or mixed with other plants. These recipes are taken in the form of fresh, powder or in paste form. The powder form may be taken with water or milk. Certain plant species are poisonous and causes various diseases in man, livestock and fishes. Some of these plants causes allergy in human. A large number of plant species are used as fodder for livestock. These fodder species are used both in fresh and dried form. The local people use many plant species as fuel wood for cooking and heat during winter. Due to lack of facilities in the area, the local people construct their houses from stones and clay and use certain plant species for timber upon which thatching and sheltering plant species are kept to support the roof. Around the cultivated lands the fences are made from thorny plant species to protect the crop from the attack of cattle. Certain plant species has given beauty and fragrance to the study area due to different color of the flowers. There are many plant species that compete with cereal plants and cause less productivity in the yield of cereal crops. The local people also eat the fruits of various wild plants and also use various plants as potherb species.

The conservation study in the selected area shows that 5 plant species were critically endangered locally under IUCN criteria version 3.1, fall under criteria A, B, C and D. The major threats to the flora of Allai valley are unplanned over exploitation of plants for various purposes, loss of habitat, deforestation, over grazing, erosion, change of environment, attack of pathogens and effect of introduced taxa.

5. Conclusions

From the present study it was concluded that there is a great impact of human life on the local vegetation. They collect plants in access quantity and are ignorant about the drying, storing or preservation techniques, which ultimately lead to the wastage of plant resource. Plants in general and medicinal plants in particular in the study area are a finite and precious resource that requires efficient, wise and sustainable management and conservation strategies.

Recommendations

Allai valley is rich in vascular plants diversity in general and medicinal plants in particular, but the present status of species diversity of vascular plants is quite different from what existed only a short time ago. Sadly several valuable species have vanished without a chance of being studied. Therefore plant conservation is a critical task in this particular area.

The local communities of the area have the knowledge of traditional uses of most of the medicinal plants. This indigenous knowledge has been transferred from generation to generation. But the future generation will not inherit the precious indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants if it is not properly documented and conserved.

The forests are continuously depleting due to high human pressure and lack of proper management. The local people are unaware of the proper collecting of timber, fuel wood and medicinal plants. Proper community training and induction of the scene of the conservation for floral diversity will lead to sustainable use of plants in the area.

Social organization and community training on the sustainable use of plant resources is only effective, if carried out through an organized community. With local organization, the community can fully and efficiently achieves its goals and objectives.

Due to lack of management or poor management the rangelands are degraded, because of livestock pressure. The potential of these rangelands should be restored through control grazing.

The floral resources of the study area needs further attention of the resources as little has been done in this field. Therefore a detailed phytosocialogical survey of vegetation types is recommended in different seasons, for evaluating the conservation status of floral resources of the selected area.

Agriculture can play an important role in the development of the area due to the availability of fertile land and water resources adopting modern agricultural tools and techniques can increase the production of existing crops. The promotion of horticultural activity, fruits trees plantation and vegetables growing is strongly needed through extension services.

The selected area provides ideal potential for honeybee keeping and poultry forming. Training the community with the modern techniques of apiculture and poultry forming will create extra job opportunities and dependence of people on the natural resources will minimized. Improved apiculture will also improve the crop yield through effective pollination.

Cultivation of medicinal plants on scientific lines will be useful to reduce pressure on natural flora.

A mass awareness campaign should be launched on both governmental and community level in order to promote awareness among the people about the importance of plants and conservation of the flora.

Provision of civic facilities in the area like road, health, education, water supply, electricity, natural gas and telephone will not only improve the living standard of the people but will also lead to the sustainable use of the resources and ecological development of the area.

Table.1. Ethno-botanical profile of vascular plants of Allai valley S. No Botanica names Use classes A B C D E F G H I J K 1. Abies pindrow Royle + - - + + + - - - - - 2. Abelia triflora R.Br. ex Wallich. - - - + - - + - - - - 3. Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. - - - + - - - + - - - 4. Acacia modesta Wall. + - + + - - + - - - - 5. Acer caesium Wall. - - + + + - - - - - - 6. Achillea mellefolium L. + - + - - - - + + - + 7. Achyranthus aspera L. + - + - - - - - + - - 8. Achyranthus bidentata Blume - - + - - - - - + - - 9. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.ex Royle + - - - - - - - - - - 10. Acorus calamus L. + - - - - - - - - - - 11. Adiantum capillus veneris L. + - - - - - - - - - - 12. Adiantum incisum Forssk + - - - - - - - - - - 13. Adiantum venustum D. Don + - - - - - - - - - - 14. Aegopodium burttii E. Nasir - - + - - - - - - - - 15. Aeschynomene indica L. - - + - - - - - + - - 16. Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambl.) Hook.f. + - - + + - - - - - - 17. Agrimonia eupatoria L. - - + - - - - + - - - 18. Agrostis hissarica Rozhev. - - + - - - - - - - - 19. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle - - + + + - - - - - - 20. Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth + - - - - - - - - - + 21. Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harm. - - + + + - - + - - - 22. Albezia lebbeck (Asb.) Stewart + - - + + - - - - - - 23. Alliaria petiolata (M.Bieb.) Cavara. - - + - - - - - + - + 24. Allium filidens Regel. + - - - - - - + - - + 25. Alnus nitida (Spach.) Endl - - - + + - - - - - - 26. Alotis stoliczkai Clarke - - + - - - - - + - - 27. Althaea ludwigii L. - - + - - - - + + + + 28. Amaranthus caudatus L. + - + - - - - - + - - 29. Amaranthus viridus L. + - + - - - - - + - + 30. Anagalis arvensis L. + - + - - - - - + - + 31. Anagalis phoenicea Gern. - - + - - - - - + - - 32. Anaphalis busa DC. - - + - - - - - + - + 33. Andrachne cordifolia (Wall.ex Dc.) Muell. - + + + - + - - - - - 34. Androsace hazarica Y. J. Nasir - - + - - - - + - - - 35. Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. - - + - - - - + - - - 36. Aquilegia pubiflora Wall.ex Royle - + - - - - - + - - - 37. Arabis bijuga G. Watt. - - + - - - - - + - + 38. Arisaema flavum Forssk. + + - - - - - - - - - 39. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume + + - - - - - - - - - 40. Artemisia japonica Thunb. + - - - - + - - - - - 41. Artemisia roxburghiana Wall. ex Bess. + + - - - + - - - - - 42. Artemisia vulgaris L. + - - + - + - - - - - 43. Asparagus filicinus Bunch–Ham.ex D.Don. + - + - - - - - + - - 44. Asparagus officinalis L. + - - - - - - - - - - 45. Asplenium cordatum G. Forst. - - + - - - - - - - - 46. Asplenium cunifolium Altunat. - - + - - - - - - - - 47. Asplenium trichomonas L. - - + - - - - - - - - 48. Aster himalaicus C. B. Clarke - - + - - - - + - - - 49. Astragalis ammophilus Karelin. - - + - - - - - - - - 50. Astragalis graveolens Buch. - - + - - - - - - - + 51. Astragalis leucocephalus Grach.ex Benth - - + - - - - - - - + 52. Atropa acuminata Royle + - - - - - - - - - - 53. Atylosia platycarpa Benth - - + - - - - - - - - 54. Avena fatua L. - - + - - - - - + - - 55. Bauhinia variegata L. - - - + + - - - - - - 56. Berberis jaeschkeana C.K. Schneider - - + + - - + - - + - 57. Berberis lycium Royle + - + + - - + - - + - 58. Bergenia ciliata Sternb. + - - - - - - - - - - 59. Betula utilis D. Don + - + + + - - - - - - 60. Bistorta emodi (Meisn) Hara + - + - - - - - + - - 61. Broussonetia papyrifera Vent - - - + + - - + - - - 62. Buplerum hazaricum Nasir + - + - - - - - + - - 63. Buplerum longicaule Wall.ex DC - - + - - - - - + - - 64. Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston + - - + - - + - - - - 65. Calotropis procera (Willd)R.Br. + + - - - - - + - - - 66. Caltha alba + - + - - - - - - - - 67. Cannabis sativa L. + - - + - - - - - - - 68. Capsella bursa pestoris (L.) Medik. - - + - - - - - - - + 69. Cardamine impatiens L. - - + - - - - - + - + 70. Carex cardiolepis Nees. - - + - - - - - - - - 71. Carex foliosa D. Don - - + - - - - - - - - 72. Carex serotina Mcrat. - - + - - - - - - - - 73. Caropteris grata Benth. - - + - - + - - - - - 74. Carpesium abrotanoides L. - - + - - - - - - - - 75. Carpesium nepalense Less. - - + - - - - - - - - 76. Cedrella serrata Royle + + - + + - - - - - - 77. Cedrus deodara Roxb. ex Lamb. + - - + + - - - - - - 78. Celosia argentea L. - - + - - - - + + - - 79. Celtis australis L. + - + + + - - - - - - 80. Centaurea iberica Trevir ex Sprengel - - - - - - - - + - - 81. Cephalanthera longifolia (L.) Fritsch + - - - - - - + - - - 82. Cheilanthes albo-marginata Clarke - - - - - - - - - - - 83. Cheilanthus dalhousiae Hook.f. - - - - - - - - - - - 84. Chenopodium album L. - - + - - - - - + - + 85. Chloris pilosa Schumachar - - + - - - - - + - + 86. Cichorium intybus L. + - - - - - - - + - - 87. Cichorium nandiaricum - - + - - - - - - - - 88. Cirsium falconeri (Hook. f.) Petrak. - - + - - - - - - - - 89. Cissampelos pareira L. + - + - - - - - - - - 90. Clematis connata DC. - - + - - - - - - - - 91. Clematis grata Wall. + - + - - - - - - - - 92. Clematis montana Buch. + - + - - - - - - - - 93. Colebrookia oppositifolia Smith - - + + - + + - - - - 94. Convolvulus arvensis L. + - + - - - - - + - - 95. Conyza Canadensis L. Cronq. - - + - - - - - + - - 96. Cornus macrophylla Wall. + - + + + - - + - - - 97. Cortaderia selloana - - + - - - - + - - - 98. Corydalis stewartii Fedde + - + - - - - - - - - 99. Cotinus coggyria Scop. + - - + - + - - - - - 100. Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall. ex. Lind. - - - + - - - - - - - 101. Cotoneaster integerrima Medic. - - - + - - - - - - - 102. Cotoneaster microphylla Wall. ex Lindl. + - - + - + - - - + - 103. Cotoneaster nummularia Fisch.& Mey + - - + - + - - - + - 104. Crataegus sonagarica G. Koch. + - - + - - + - - + - 105. Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. - - + - - - - - - - - 106. Cupressus sempervirens L. - - - + - - - + - - - 107. Cuscuta gigantea Griff. + - - - - - - - - - - 108. Cynodon dactylon L. + - + - - - - - + - - 109. Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forsk. - - + - - - - - + - 110. Cyperus iria L. - - + - - - - - - - - 111. Cyperus neveus Retz. - - + - - - - - - - - 112. Cystopteris fragilis (L.) Benth. - - - - - - - - - - - 113. Dactylis glomerata L. - - + - - - - - + - - 114. Dalbergia sisso Roxb. + - + + + - - - - - - 115. Daphne mucronata Royle + - - + - - - - - + - 116. Daphne papyracea Wall .ex Steud. + - - + - + - - - - - 117. Datura innoxia Miller + + - - - - - + - - - 118. Datura stramonium L. + + - - - - - + - - - 119. Debregessia salcifolia (D.Don) Rendle + - - + - - + - - - - 120. Delphinum vestitum Wall.ex Royle - + - - - - - + - - - 121. Descurainia sophia (Linn.) Webb. + - + - - - - - + - - 122. Desmodium elegans DC. + - + + - + - - - - - 123. Deutzia staminea R. Br .ex Wall. + - - + - + - - - - - 124. Dicliptra bupleorides Nees - - + - - - - - + - - 125. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Kunth + + - - - - - - - - - 126. Dioscorea melenophyma Burkill & Prain - - + - - - - - - - - 127. Diospyros kaki L. - - - + - - - + - + - 128. Diospyros lotus L. + - - + + - - - - + - 129. Diplazium kawakamii - - + - - - - - - - - 130. Dodonaea vescosa (L.) Jacq. + - - + - + + - - - - 131. Dryopteris blandfordi Hope. - - + - - - - - + - + 132. Dryopteris jaxtapostia Chirst. + - + - - - - - - - + 133. Dryopteris serrate dentata (Bedd.) Hay - - + - - - - - - - + 134. Dryopteris wallichiana (Spring.) Hyl. - - + - - - - - - - - 135. Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke. + - + - - - - - - + - 136. Duhaldea cappa Anderb. - - + + - + - - - - - 137. Echinochloa colona (linn.) Link. - - + - - - - - + - - 138. Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch - - + - - - - - + - - 139. Ehretia serrata Roxb. - - + + + - - - - - - 140. Elaegnus umbellata Thunb. + - - + - - + - - + - 141. Eleocharis umiglumis (Link) Schultes - - + - - - - - + - - 142. Elsholtzia fruticosa (Roxb .ex D. Don) - - + - - - - - + - - 143. Elsholtzia strobilifera Benth. - - + - - - - - + - - 144. Epilobium rhychospermum Hausskn. - - + - - - - - - - - 145. Equisetum arvense L. + - - - - - - - - - - 146. Equisetum hiemale L. + - - - - - - - - - - 147. Erodium cicutarium L. - - + - - - - - + - - 148. Erophila verna (L.) Besser - - + - - - - - + - + 149. Eucalyptus globules - - - + + - - + - - - 150. Euphorbia cognata Boiss. - + - - - - - - - - - 151. Euphorbia helioscopia L. - + - - - - - - + - - 152. Euphorbia indica Lam. + - - - - - - - - - - 153. Euphorbia wallichii Hook.f. + + - - - - - - - - - 154. Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara - - + - - - - - - - - 155. Fallopia convolvulus L. - - + - - - - - + - - 156. Ferula sp. + - - - - - - - - - - 157. Ficus carica Forsk. + - - + - - - - - + - 158. Ficus palmata Forsk. + - - + - - - - - + - 159. Ficus racemosa L. + - - + - - - - - + - 160. Ficus sarmentosa Buch. - - - - - - - + - + - 161. Filipendula vestita Maxim. - - + - - - - - - - - 162. Foeniculum vulgare Miller + - - - - - - - - + + 163. Fragaria nubicola Lindl. + - + - - - - + - + - 164. Fumaria indica (Husskin) H. N. + - + - - - - - - - - 165. Gagea satifolia Baker. - - + - - - - + + - - 166. Galinsoga parviflora Cav. - - + - - - - - + - - 167. Gallium aparine L. + - + - - - - - + - - 168. Gentiana karelinii DC. - - + - - - - - - - - 169. Gentianodes pedicellata D. Don + - - - - - - - - - - 170. Geranium collinum Steph .ex Willd. - - + - - - - - - - - 171. Geranium lucidum L. - - + - - - - - - - - 172. Geranium rotundifolium L. + - + - - - - - - - - 173. Geranium wallichianum D.Don + - + - - - - - - - - 174. Gerberia gossipiana (Royle) Beauv. + - - - - - - - - - - 175. Geum roylei Bolle. - - + - - - - - + - - 176. Girardiana palmata (Forssk) Gaugich. - - - - - - - - + - - 177. Glochidon velutinum Wight. - - - + - - + - - - - 178. Grewia optiva Drum.ex Burret. + - + + + - - - - - - 179. Gymnosporia royleana Wall.ex Lawson. + - - + - - + - - - - 180. Hedra nepalensis K. Koch. + - + - - - - - - - - 181. Heliotropium cabulicum Bunge. - - + - - - - - + - - 182. Heracleum cochemiricum C. B. Clarke. - - + - - - - - + - - 183. Heteropogon contortus L. - - + - - - - - - - - 184. Himalrandia tetrasperma (Roxb.) Yama. - - - + - - + - - - - 185. Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy - - + - - + - + - - - 186. Hypericum perforatum L. + - + - - - - - + - - 187. Ilex dipyrena Wall. - - - + - - - - - - - 188. Impatiens bicolor Royle + - + - - - - + + - - 189. Impatiens brachycentra Kar. - - + - - - - + - - - 190. Impatiens edgeworthii Hook.f. - - + - - - - + + - - 191. Impatiens sulcata Wall. - - + - - - - + - - - 192. Indigofera heterantha Well.ex Brandis + - - + - + - - - - - 193. Inula acuminata Royle .ex DC. - - + - - - - - - - - 194. Inula royleana DC. + - + - - - - + - - - 195. Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. Proder - - + - - - - - + - - 196. Ipomoea nil (linn.) Roth. - - + - - - - - + - - 197. Ipomoea turbinate Lag. - - + - - - - - + - - 198. Iris germanica L. - - - - - - - + + - - 199. Isodon coetsa Buch. Ham .ex D. Don. - - + + - + - - - - - 200. Isodon rugosus L. + - + + - + - - - - - 201. Jasminum humile L. + - - - - - - + - - - 202. Jasminum officinale L. + - - - - - - + - - - 203. Juglans regia L. + - - + + - - - - + - 204. Juncus articulatus L. - - + - - - - - - - - 205. Juniperus communis Brand. + - - + - - - - - - - 206. Justicia adhatoda L. + + - - - + - + - - - 207. Koeleria macrantha Schult - - + - - - - - + - + 208. Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. - - + - - - - - + - - 209. Lallemantia royleana Benth. - - + - - - - - - - - 210. Lamium album L. - - + - - - - - - - - 211. Lathyrus aphaca L. + - + - - - - - + + - 212. Lathyrus sphaericus Retz. - - + - - - - - + + - 213. Launea procumbens Roxb. + - - - - - - - - - - 214. Leontopodium brachyoctis Gandoger - - + - - - - - - - - 215. Lepidium apetalum Willd. - - + - - - - - + - + 216. Lepidium pinnatifidum Ledeb. - - + - - - - - + - + 217. Lespedeza gerardiana Graham ex Maxim. - - + - - - - - - - - 218. Leucostegia pulchra D. Don - - + - - - - + - - - 219. Lindelofia stylosa Brand. - - + - - - - - - - - 220. Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw. - - + + - + - + - - - 221. Lotus corniculatus L. - + - - - - - - + - - 222. Lygodium hazaricum - - + - - - - - - - - 223. Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Prude - + - + - - + - - - - 224. Mallotus philippensis (Lam) Muell + - - + - - + - - - - 225. Malva neglecta Wall. + - + - - - - - + - + 226. Marrubium vulgare L. + - + - - - - - - - - 227. Marsilea quadrifolia L. - - - - - - - - + - - 228. Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Schultz. - - + - - - - - + - - 229. Medicago denticulata Willd. - - + - - - - - + - + 230. Medicago lupulina L. - - + - - - - - + - + 231. Melia azedarach L. + - - + + - - - - - - 232. Melilotos altissima Thiull. - - + - - - - - - - - 233. Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. + - - - - - - - - - + 234. Mentha spicata L. + - - - - - - - - - + 235. Micromeria biflora Buch. + - + - - - - - - - - 236. Mirabalis jalapa L. + - + - - - - + - - - 237. Morus alba L. + - + + + - - - - + - 238. Morus nigra L. + - + + + - - - - + - 239. Morus serrata Roxb. + - + + - - - - - + - 240. Mosla dianthera (Buch, -Ham) Maxim. - - + - - - - - + - - 241. Myrsine africana L. - - + + - + - - - + - 242. Myrtus communis L. + - - + - - - - - - - 243. Narcissus tazetta L. - - - - - - - + - - - 244. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. - - + - - - - - - - + 245. Nepeta cataria L. - - + - - - - - + - - 246. Nerium indicum Mill. + + - + - - - + - - - 247. Neslia apiculata Fisch. - - + - - - - - + - - 248. Notholirion thomsonianum (D. Don) Stapf - - + - - - - + - - - 249. Oenothera affinis Camb. - - + - - - - + - - - 250. Oenothera rosea L. - - + - - - - - + - - 251. Olea ferrugenea Royle + - + + + - - - - - - 252. Onopordum acanthium L. - - - - - - - + + - - 253. Onosma echioides + - - - - - - - - - - 254. Ophipogon intermedius Banddi. D. Don - - + - - - - - - - - 255. Opuntia dilleni Haw. + - - - - - + - - - - 256. Origanum vulgare L. + - + - - - - - + - - 257. Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss. + - - + - - + - - - - 258. Oxalis corniculata L. + - - - - - - - - - + 259. Paeonia emodi Wall ex Hook. f. + - - - - - - - - - - 260. Papaver rhoes L. - - + - - - - + + - - 261. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Dec.) Rehder - - - + - + - - - - - 262. Persicaria nepalensis Meisn. - - + - - - - + - - - 263. Persicaria stagnina Buch-Ham. + + + - - - - + + - - 264. Phalangium acuminatum Boiss. - - - - - - - + - - - 265. Phleum pratense L. - - + - - - - - - - - 266. Phlomis bracteosa Royle .ex Benth. - - + - - - - - - - - 267. Phlomis rotata Royle .ex Benth. - - + - - - - - - - - 268. Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex steud. - - + + - + + - - - - 269. Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. - - + + - + + - - - - 270. Physalis divaricata D. Don - - + - - - - - + + - 271. Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss. - - - + + - - - - - - 272. Picris hieraciodes L. - - + - - - - + - - - 273. Pinus roxburghii Surgent + - - + + + - - - - - 274. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson - - - + + + - - - - - 275. Pistacea integerrima J. L. Stewart + - - + + - - - - - - 276. Plantago lanceolatum L. + - + - - - - - + - - 277. Plantago major Aitch. + - + - - - - - + - - 278. Platanus orientalis L. + - - + + - - + - - - 279. Pleurospermum brunonis (DC.)Clarke - - + - - - - - + - - 280. Poa infirma H. B. K. - - + - - - - - + - - 281. Podophyllum emodi Wall .ex Royle + - - - - - - - - - - 282. Poligonatum verticilatum (L.) All. + - - - - - - - - - - 283. Bistortaum amplexicaule D. Don + - + - - - - - - - + 284. Polygonum plebejum R. Br. + - + - - - - - + - - 285. Populs ciliata Wall. + - + + + + - - - - - 286. Populus alba L. + - + + - - - - - - - 287. Populus nigra L. - - - + + - + - - - - 288. Portulaca oleracea L. + - - - - - - - - - + 289. Potentilla gerardiana Lindl. + - + - - - - - - - - 290. Potentilla nepalensis Hook.f. + - + - - - - + - - - 291. Potentilla sericophylla Parker - - + + - + - - - - - 292. Potentilla sundaica (Blume) O. Kuntze - - + - - - - - - - - 293. Primula denticulata Smith + - + - - - - + - - - 294. Prinsepia utilis Royle - - - + - + + + - + - 295. Prunella vulgaris L. - - + - - - - - - - - 296. Prunus arminiaca Marsh. + - + + - - - - - + - 297. Prunus domistica L. + - + + - - - - - + - 298. Prunus padus Hook.f. - - + + + - - - - + - 299. Prunus persica L. + - + + - - - - - + - 300. Pseudognaphalium hypolecum (DC.)O. M. - - + - - - - + - - - 301. Pseudognaphalium luteo album (L.) O. M. - - + - - - - + - - - 302. Psychrogeton andryaloides (DC.) Novo. - - + - - - - - - - - 303. Pteracanthus urticifolius Bremek - - + - - - - - + - - 304. Pteridium equilinum (L.) Kuhn. - - - - - - - - - - + 305. Pteris cretica L. + - - - - - - - - - - 306. Pteris longifolia L. - - + - - - - - - - - 307. Pulicaria dysentrica L. - - + - - - - - - - - 308. Punica granatum L. + - - + - - - - - + - 309. Pycreus flavidus (Retz) T. Koyama - - + - - - - - - - - 310. Pyrus communis L. + - + + - - - - - + - 311. Pyrus malus L. + - + + - - - - - + - 312. Pyrus pashia L. + - + + - - - - - + - 313. Quercus baloot Griffith. - - - + - - - - - - - 314. Quercus dilatata Lindle. ex Royle + - + + - - - - - - - 315. Quercus glauca Thunb. - - + + - - - - - - - 316. Quercus incana Roxb. + - + + - - - - - - - 317. Quercus semicarpifolia Smith. - - + + - - - - - - - 318. Ranunculus arvensis L. - - + - - - - - + - - 319. Ranunculus hirtellus Royle - - + - - - - - + - - 320. Ranunculus laetus Wall .ex Hook .f. - - + - - - - - + - - 321. Ranunculus palmatifidus Hook.f. - - + - - - - - - - - 322. Rhamnus virgata Roxb. - - - + - - - - - - - 323. Rheum australe D. Don + - - - - - - - - - - 324. Rhododendron arboreum Smith + - - + - - - + - - - 325. Rhus javanica L. + - - + - - - - - + - 326. Rhynchosia pseudocajan Camb. - - + - - - - - + - - 327. Ricinus communis L. + + - - - - + - - - - 328. Robinia pseudo acacia L. - - + + + - + - - - - 329. Rosa moschata J. Herm. + - - + - - + + - - - 330. Roscoea alpina Royle - - + - - - - + - - - 331. Rubia cordifolia L. - - + - - - - - + - - 332. Rubus ellipticus Smith - - - + - - + - - + - 333. Rubus fructicousus Hook.f. + - + + - - + - - + - 334. Rubus ulmifolius Schott. + - - + - - + - - + - 335. Rumex dentatus L. + - + - - - - - - - + 336. Rumex hastatus D. Don + - - - - - - - - - + 337. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. + - + - - - - - - - + 338. Sagerethia thea Osbeck. - - + + - + + - - - - 339. Salix acmophylla Boiss. - - - + - - - - - - - 340. Salix babilonica L. + - - + - - - + - - - 341. Salix calyculata Hook.f. - - + + - + - - - - - 342. Salix tetrasperma Roxb. - - - + + - - - - - - 343. Salvia lanata Roxb. + - + - - - - + - - - 344. Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. + - - + + - - - - - - 345. Sarcococca saligna (Don) Muell. + - - + - + - - - - - 346. Saxifraga engleriana Smith. - - + - - - - - - - - 347. Saussurea lappa Dcne. + - - - - - - - - - - 348. Saussurea roylei (DC) Sch. Bip. + - - - - - - - - - - 349. Scandix pecten-veneris L. - - + - - - - - - - + 350. Scutellaria chamaedrifolia Hedge - - + - - - - - - - - 351. Sedum ewersii Ledeb. - - - - - - - + - - - 352. Selaginella sanguinolenta Spring. - - - - - - - - - - - 353. Selinum vaginatum (Edgew.) Clarke - - - - - - - - + - - 354. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. - - + - - - - + - - - 355. Senecio graciliflorus DC. - - + - - - - + - - - 356. Senecio jacquemontianus (Decne) Benth.ex Hook.) - - + - - - - + - - - 357. Setaria intermedia Roem. - - + - - - - - + - - 358. Sibaldia cuneata Hornum. - - + - - - - - - - - 359. Silene conoidea L. + - + - - - - - + - - 360. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. + - + - - - - - + - - 361. Silybum marianum Gaertn. + - - - - - - + - - - 362. Sium latijugum C. B. Clarke - - + - - - - - - - - 363. Skimmia laureola DC. + - + - - - - - - - - 364. Smilax glaucophylla Klotzch - - + - - - - - - - - 365. Solanum nigrum L. + - + - - - - - - + - 366. Solanum pseudocapsicum L. - - - - - - - + - - - 367. Solanum surratense Burm.f. + - - - - - - - - - - 368. Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi + - + - - - - - - + - 369. Solidago virga aurea L. - - + - - - - + - - - 370. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. - - + - - - - - + - - 371. Sorbaria tomentosa Lindl. - - + + - + - + - - - 372. Spiraea vaccinifolia D. Don - - + + - + - + - - - 373. Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames, - - + - - - - - + - - 374. Staphylea emodi Brandis - - - + - + - - - - - 375. Stellaria media (L.) Cyr. + - + - - - - - - - + 376. Swertia paniculata Wall. + - + - - - - - - - - 377. Tagetes minuta L. - - - - - - - + + - - 378. Tanacetum dolicophyllum Kitam. - - + - - - - - - - - 379. Taraxiacum officinale Weber + - - - - - - - + - + 380. Taxus wallichiana Zuce. + - + + + + - - - - - 381. Themeda anathera (Nees.ex Steud) DC. - - + - - - - - - - - 382. Thymus linearis Benth. + - + - - - - - - - + 383. Torilis japonica (Hout) DC. - - + - - - - + - - - 384. Trachelospermum lucidum (D.Don) Schum. + - + - - - - + - - - 385. Trifolium repens L. - - + - - - - - + - + 386. Trigonella monantha C. A. + - + - - - - - + - + 387. Tulipa stellata Hook.f. - - + - - - - + - - - 388. Ulmus wallichiana Planch. - - - + + - - - - - - 389. Urtica dioica L. + + - - - - - - - - - 390. Valeriana jatamansi Jones + - - - - - - - - - - 391. Valerianella muricata (Stev) Baxt. - - + - - - - - + - - 392. Verbascum thapsus L. + - - - - - - - - - - 393. Verbena officinalis L. + - + - - - - - - - - 394. Verbena tenuisecta Briq. - - + - - - - + - - - 395. Veronica laxa Benth. - - + - - - - - - - - 396. Veronica persica - - + - - - - - - - - 397. Vescum album L. - - - + - - - - - - - 398. Vibernum cotonifolium D.Don - - - + - + - - - + - 399. Vibernum grandiflorum Wall.ex D C. - - - + - + - - - + - 400. Vibernum mulloha Buch. - Ham. ex D.Don - - - + - + - - - - - 401. Vibernum nervosum D.Don. - - - + - + - - - - - 402. Vicia hirsute (L.) S. F. Gray - - + - - - - - + + - 403. Vicia sativa L. - - + - - - - - + + - 404. Viola betonicifolia Smith + - + - - - - - - - - 405. Viola canescens Wall .ex Roxb. + - + - - - - - - - - 406. Vitex negundo L. + - - + - + - + - - - 407. Vitis jacquemontii Parker - - + - - - - - - + - 408. Wikstroemia canescens Maissner - - + + - + - - - - - 409. Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal + - - - - - - - - - - 410. Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz - - - + - + - + - - - 411. Wulfenia amherstiana Wall.ex Bth. + - + - - - - - - - - 412. Xanthium stromarium L. + - - - - - - - + - - 413. Zanthoxylum armatum DC. + - - + - - + - - + - 414. Zizyphus oxyphyla Edgew. + - + + - - + - - + - 415. Zizyphus vulgare Lam. + - + + - - + - - + - A: Medicinal plants, B: Poisonous plants, C: Fodder species, D: Fuel wood species, E: Timber yielding plants, F: Thatching / Sheltering plants, G: Fencing / Hedge plants, H: Ornamental, I: weeds, J: Plants yielding edible fruits and seeds, K: Vegetable and potherb species.