1. Introduction

Initial decision to work on school effectiveness (SE) evoked many questions into my mind. How can we say that this school is better and this is not? What one may count in the defining frame of effective schools? What are those practices, which make school performance better? In the same line, Wyatt (1996) emphasized that after more than two decades of research into school effectiveness, it is important to question what we have learnt and achieved so far. He further states, ‘regardless of the voluminous literature on SE, we are not much further advanced from the state of affairs described in Ralph and Fennessy's (1983) critique – ‘much of the literature takes the form of reviews of reviews, with only a small number of highly influential empirical studies providing the "evidence" cited in paper after paper’ (in Wyatt, 1996).

Cameron and Whetten (1983) argue, the definitions, models and criteria of organizational effectiveness are so diverse that a single clear definition is impossible, as organizations may have multiple and often contradictory goals at different levels. The closer view depicts that all schools are unique in their own ways, and many factors combine to make them what they are. In such condition, stating that all schools work on a set pattern and fabricated with specific factors is neither easy nor correct. However, it is possible to identify a set of common characteristics like school culture, leadership, teachers’ trust in head teacher or their own colleagues, etc. (Uline, Miller & Tschannen-Moran, 1998) that may contribute to the effectiveness of the school.

Literature suggests that different schools of thought/discipline have conceptualized SE in different ways. For instance, educationists have given more importance to enrollment, retention, and dropout rates (Kochan, Tashakkori, & Teddlie, 1996), whereas many have seen it in terms of students’ performance, academic achievement or success rate (Coleman et al., 1966; Mott, 1972). Among the existing measures of school effectiveness, student achievement, as operationalized by standardized scores in mathematics and reading seem to be the predominant measure (Peterson, 1984; Sweetland & Hoy, 2000). These two measures deal with the input and output aspects of SE.

Others have viewed SE in terms of classroom pedagogy or teaching learning, the content aspect (Uline et al., 1998; Creemers, 1994; Cohen, 1983; and Scheerens, 1992) and in addition to this, large sections of management and educational researches have also viewed effectiveness in terms of process aspects and uses additional measures to evaluate school effectiveness (Sweetland & Hoy, 2000; Silins & Harvey, 1999). Uline, Miller and Tschannen-Moran (1998) have classified the measures of reading, writing and arithmetic as instrumental activities. They have also discussed an additional criterion to measure effectiveness and have named them as expressive activities. Expressive activities included teachers’ trust in colleagues and principal and school health (served as a basic framework of this current study) explained 72% of the variance in effectiveness (Uline et al., 1998).

In Indian context, the term school effectiveness has been interchangeably used with school quality (Adams, 1997). Thus, it is imperative for us to review the growing international and national research literature on school quality as well in our endeavor to gain insights into the theoretical perspectives. In practice, quality and its concepts are usually defined as outputs, outcomes, processes or inputs. This refers to the degree to which the objectives are met or desired levels of accomplishment are achieved.

Recent researches go beyond the prevailing trend of analyzing the impact of schools, classroom processes and education on students’ educational performance and move towards studying other factors those with-in schools, the identification of a reasonably consistent set of school characteristics that contribute to enhanced educational outcomes (Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000). We may say that in the intervening years, the factors of SE researches specifically in international context have explored a cluster of indicators by focusing more on process aspect.

While measuring SE, the process model assumes that a school is effective if its internal functioning is smooth and "healthy". Therefore, according to this model, the internal organizational activities and practices in schools are regarded as important criteria of school effectiveness (Cheng 1993). Thus, it serves as a basic framework of this study. Review of enormous and vast researches on SE (Cheng, 1996; Mott, 1972; Reynolds, et. al., 1996; Sammons, et. al. 1995, 1999) has revealed that following the process model, researcher have identified effectiveness indicators in terms of leadership, school atmosphere, communication channels, participation etc.

Perhaps Hechinger (1981) best summarizes the matter when he states, “I have never seen a good school with a poor principal or a poor school with a good principal”. In his pioneer study of effective schools placed leadership at the top of his list of characteristics that distinguished such institutions. Curran (1983) in placing the importance of the principal as being an active leader at the top of his list of 11 effective school factors noted, “Leadership is the ultimate necessity for any successful group, organization, or endeavor.

Leadership competencies have been defined in many ways, but they are causally related to success or performance (Wright, 2008). According to Garman & Johnson, (2006) competencies are relevant outcome measures to assess knowledge, skills and abilities. Leadership competencies may be defined in terms of characteristics of a leader with behavioral implications that are thought to associate with successful performance of their job. As stated by Boyatzis (1982), competence means different things to different people. However, it is generally accepted as encompassing knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviours that are causally related to superior job performance. A definition of "competency" adopted from Parry's (1998) work is "a cluster of related knowledge, attitudes, skills, and other personal characteristics that affects a major part of one's job, correlates with performance on the job, can be measured against well-accepted standards, can be improved via training and development and can be broken down into dimensions of competencies". The major components of competencies include: abilities, attitudes, behaviour, knowledge, personality and skills.

Transformational leadership competencies framework shifts the focus from leading to building new leaders. James MacGregor Burns (1978), writing in his book ‘Leadership’ was the first to put forward the concept of ‘transforming leadership’. To Burns, transforming leadership is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents. Many have viewed it in altogether different shades. Like, Kouzes and Posner (2007, 2009) have viewed transformational leadership into five critical competencies i.e. modeling the way, inspiring a shared vision, challenging the process, enabling others to act, and encouraging the heart. According to Bass & Avolio (1994, 1995) transformational leadership include five indices (5I’s), which are idealized influence (attributed), idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration). Hooper and Potter (1997) extended this notion of transformational leadership by identifying seven key competencies, i.e. setting direction, setting an example, communication, alignment, bringing out the best in people, the leader as a change agent, and providing decision in a crisis and an ambiguous situations, of transcendent leaders.

In an Indian scenario, Sinha (2004) has defined competencies as individual characteristics, which is causally related to effective or superior performance in a job or situation. He further states that competencies may be divided into two categories. First, the threshold competencies that are the essential characteristics, and second, the differentiating competencies, i.e. the factors that distinguish superior from average performers. There could be five types of competency characteristics in the main. They are the following: motives, traits, self-concept, knowledge, and skill. Out of these five, the skill and the knowledge may be regarded as belonging to the surface of the people and are more visible, whereas the self-concept, traits, and motives are relatively hidden and could be more difficult to access and develop. Hence, skill and knowledge competencies may be more amenable to training attempts and may be relatively easy to develop.

Bitterová, Hašková and Pisonová (2014) described the quality of school leaders and managers as one of the fundamental factors that significantly affect the quality of teaching and learning processes at each level of the education system. The authors carried out a study aimed at defining both the importance of specific items in a profile of a school leader's competence and the needs and requirements of school leaders derived from their actual daily practice. The results showed in the four areas of management area competence, practicing school leaders consider the most critical competencies of a school leader profile to establish motivational strategies focused on common school values, competency to create and develop an effective learning atmosphere for the learning of pupils and students, competency to clearly identify, distribute and assign resolutions. Jamal (2014) reviews research literature in order to evaluate the most successful leadership model in the current school management conditions. In order to achieve this objective, a consistent literature review was carried out on the following subjects: evolution of leadership; types of transformative and transactional leadership; the links between a leadership style and organizational variables; the relationship between value systems and leadership styles of school’s principles. During the study of leadership evolution, techniques, processes, models, and means are studied. The literary review indicates that transformational leadership essentially improves the functioning of school and teaching processes. it is determined that principals with a moral value system lean more towards a transformational leadership style and principals with a pragmatic value system lean more towards a transactional leadership style.

In 2016, Goksoy, evaluated the levels of leadership competencies that the deputy principals experience, their impressions of their personal characteristics, and the organization's atmosphere. In the analysis, results were found that Deputy Principals regard themselves as leaders in terms of personal characteristics and behaviors. In terms of management, the competencies of deputy principals are: technical, interpersonal, conceptual and cognitive competencies. Trakšelys, Melnikova, and Martišauskienė (2016) took the development of competencies of school heads as an object of study, conceptualized in the form of paradigms of education management. It is argued that school leaders are responsible for controlling the educational process, managing and running the school, redesigning the school and setting the course. In addition, it is claimed that the introduction of an integral model of leadership (which incorporates instructional, transactional and transformative leadership) presupposes school progress in the structural change paradigm. It is disclosed that school heads must have a comprehensive capacity that requires those competencies under the conditions of structural change: management of educational process, strategic, operational, interpersonal, personal, continuous learning as well as dimensions of emotional intelligent, critical thinking and diagnostic competency.

Lastly, as a mediating variable, culture has a powerful effect on the performance and long-term effectiveness of organizations (Cameron & Ettington, 1983). Schein (1985) contends that the most important function of a leader is the creation and molding of organizational cultures. They encourage autonomy and assists in creating such an organizational culture, which results in both leader and follower being elevated to a higher level of motivation and morality (Burns, 1978). Quality cultures are conducive to enhancing work environments and may have a positive impact with areas such as worker satisfaction, communication, effectiveness, innovation and creativity in the organizations (Schein, 1996). Abdullah, Ling, and Hassan (2018) identified the impact on the culture of teachers of the importance of teacher work. A total of 540 randomly chosen teachers were selected as respondents in the study from 36 secondary schools in Penang. The results of the study have shown that the working importance variables of teachers and school culture are at moderate levels. Furthermore, the findings also show the value of teachers' work, especially the dimensions of engagement, pride, improvement, and activity have a significant influence on school culture. Therefore, the findings of this study suggest that educators need to learn, improve, and transform existing values so as to foster a better personality and add value to their working environment.

Schein (1987) argues that those occupying the top positions have the largest span of control, greater access to resources and the highest visibility. Researchers have found leadership as a core construct influence the organizational culture. As Schein (1992) observes that organizational culture and leadership are intertwined and culture creation, culture evolution, and culture management are what ultimately define leadership. He illustrates this inter-connection by looking at the relationship between leadership and culture in the context of the organizational life cycle.

Özgenel (2020) decides whether the school climate impacts school effectiveness. For this reason, the analysis used a hierarchical screening model for quantitative research. In the 2018-2019 academic year, the study was performed and 341 teachers participated voluntarily. Correlation and regression analysis analyzed the results. School environment predicts school performance, according to the findings. It was concluded that there is a positive and essential correlation between the efficacy of school and the principal behaviors of help and directive, and the behaviors of intimate and collegial teachers. In other words, at various levels and positively, the actions of supportive and directive principals and collegial teacher behaviors have influenced school performance.

Thus, viewing the importance of leadership and organizational culture in understanding school effectiveness via process model and considering teachers and principals as the most stable entities and important stakeholders of the entire organization, this study tries to analyze the perceived school effectiveness along with transformational leadership competencies of principals and work culture values of teachers from their perspectives.

Research Questions

1. What set of leadership competencies work in schools?

2. As a function of culture, what work related values are being practiced at schools?

3. Does the ownership of school like – government and private schools has any relationship with regard to the leadership competencies, cultural practices and its impact on school effectiveness?

Objectives - The study focuses on these specific objectives as follows:

1. To understand transformational leadership competencies, work related values and school effectiveness in both public and private schools.

2. To explore the relationship and identify the predictors of school effectiveness from between the different dimensions of antecedent variables i.e. transformational leadership competencies, work culture values in both public and private schools.

Variables -

Antecedent Variables

• Transformational Leadership Competencies

• Organizational Culture

Outcome Variable

• Organizational Effectiveness

Proposed framework of the study

In relation to the purpose of this study, a theoretical framework has been proposed to illustrate the vital link between the antecedent, intermediate and outcome variables in the form of a schematic diagram (fig 1) which shows the relationship between transformational leadership competencies and school effectiveness with a mediating role of organizational work culture values.

Figure 1. Research Framework - Relationship between TLC & SE with a mediating variable of WCV

2. Method

Design of the Study

This study was ex-post facto in nature. All the teachers of urban higher secondary schools were considered as the population for this study. A sample of 120 teachers was drawn with the help of purposive sampling technique. Quantitative data was obtained from teachers by using standardized tools of transformational leadership competencies, work culture values and school effectiveness.

Sample selection Process

The sample was drawn based on purposive sampling technique. As the number of government schools (3) and the number of those teachers who have served their institutions for at least 3 – 5 years were limited, care was taken to select the sample of at least 30 participants in each management type schools, so as to apply the inferential statistics successfully. The total sample was comprised of 120 teachers and their corresponding school principals of government and private higher secondary schools of Allahabad district.

Figure 2. Sample selection process

Measures used in Quantitative Study

The following tools were used to study the perception of teachers regarding the role of principal’s leadership competencies and cultural practices in relation to effectiveness of schools. The tools are as follows:

1. Proforma for Teachers (Appendix - II)

2. Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ) by Rai, S & Sinha, A.K. (2000)

3. Organizational Culture-The Value Grid by Sinha, J. B. P. (1990)

4. Organizational Effectiveness Scale (OES) by Taylor, J. C. & Bower, D. (1972)

Scoring and statistical analysis

After the administration of questionnaires and final data collection, scoring of items were done as per the instructions of all the questionnaires. Once the scores were available, they were analyzed using quantitative measures. Different statistical techniques (Mean and Standard Deviation) inferential statistics (correlation and regression analysis) were used by using SPSS (17^th version). By synthesizing the data, these methods have facilitated the derivation of conclusions and formulation of generalization.

3. Results & Discussion

1. Exploration of antecedent and outcome variables in different management type schools

Transformational Leadership Competencies (TLC)

It was assumed that the effectiveness of school is shaped by the transformational leadership competencies (TLC) within certain cultural characteristics perceived by the teachers of the school. Based on their perception, the findings of this study demonstrated that TLC was being practiced differently in public and private schools.

Results revealed that the scores on the dimensions of TLC (Table 1), shows that teachers have perceived their principal as transformational leader exhibiting the competence of being capable and participative which is constantly scored highest in all types of schools.

Table 1. Mean (M) & Standard Deviation (SD) of different Dimensions of TLC by different Management Type Schools

This clearly shows that teachers have perceived their principals as one who is knowledgeable and skilled in their academics as well as administrative roles, receptive to new ideas, believes in the overall growth and development of teachers, other staff members and students. Teachers also perceived their principals as competent to encourage them to practice innovative and creative ways of teaching and learning. Perhaps, such perceptions may have facilitative effect on building trust and conducive climate for positive perceptions. The overall results (fig. 3) showed that central and private schools provide better possibilities of expression and practice of leadership competencies, as compare to state government and state aided schools.

Figure 3. Mean Scores of Different Components of TLC in Different Management Type Schools

Organizational Culture – As Work Culture Values (WCV)

Studies in the area of organizational culture indicated that organizational as well as individual values play an important role in determining how well an individual fits into the organizational context (Rousseau, 1990). To understand the cultural aspect and its related processes, many researchers have conceptualized and measured values at the individual level (Rokeach, 1973; Sinha, 1990). Values are an integral part of behavior and may be defined as a person's principles or standards of behavior. In the present research, these cultural aspects were measured in terms of four subordinate work related values (self-realization, status enhancement, sulphitic values and socio economic support) of teachers (Sinha, 1990).

Results (Table 2) indicate that among the four dimensions, two of them, the self-realization and socio economic support values are being practiced more as against sulphitic and status enhancement values by the teachers in all the management type schools. The mean score on self-realization values seem to be more in central and private schools as compared to state government and state aided schools. In terms of socio-economic support, there is a marginal difference among the mean scores of central, state aided and private schools, whereas it is found to be least exhibited in state government schools.

Table 2. Mean (M) & Standard Deviation (SD) of Work Culture Values (WCV) and its Dimensions by different Management Type Schools

The pattern (fig. 4) of self-realization values was high in central and private schools as compare to state schools. As it is evident from above findings, that in central and private schools, principals exhibit those transformational leadership competencies and behavior, which helps in creating positive and healthy work environment. It seems that teachers get an opportunity to utilize their skills and talents, psychological space for learning and exploring new pedagogical ways of dissemination.

Figure 4. Mean Scores of different Dimensions of WCV in different Management Type Schools

These competencies and behavior of school principals may inspire and motivate teachers to put extra efforts, which in turn help them to strengthen their believe and practice of values related to self-realization. This may be giving them an opportunity to get recognized as an individual and thereby strengthening their sense of identity as educationist/teacher. In an Indian organization, a study conducted by Singh (2009) revealed reward as one of the HR practices found strongly related with all the variables of these work cultural values in both public and private organizations. In comparison to state schools, central and private schools praise good activities, creative and innovative ways of learning. As a result, teachers of these schools may have viewed it as a motivating factor to reap these intrinsic rewards and act more in accordance with these dominant values. Further, Singh (2009) stated that people endorsed by the values of self-realization are better managed, so that they can serve the institution for longer period.

Following this, results revealed that socio-economic support values have also scored high, which helps in building strong relations and it might be helpful for teachers in selection, recruitment, promotion and career management (Singh, 2009). The quality of relationships among new teachers and school insiders overcome the negative effects of unmet expectations (Major et al. 1995). Interaction with new teachers with positive frame of mind may be good for insiders’ attitude and morale.

School Effectiveness (SE)

Hill and Rowe (1996) suggested that teachers, not schools, ‘make the difference’ in student learning. In this background, this study tried to understand perceived school effectiveness in terms of teachers’ group functioning, goal integration and satisfaction. It is also reasonable to expect that a phenomenon as pervasive as work culture values of teachers will directly affect their perceived level of organizational performance. Results revealed (Table 3, fig. 5) that the mean scores on these dimensions show that group functioning and satisfaction are high, whereas goal integration is low in all the management type schools. It also follows the same pattern as above and exhibits high mean scores on group functioning and satisfaction in central and private schools respectively.

Table 3. Mean (M) & Standard Deviation (SD) of School Effectiveness (SE) and its Dimensions by different Management Type Schools

Figure 5. Mean Scores of different Dimensions of SE in different Management Type Schools

High scores on group functioning depicts that teachers perform better in groups. Every group member gets opportunity to take part in the decision-making process and problem solving. Further, they trust each other, show confidence, and execute plans with proper coordination. They also share important information and responsibilities in the times of unusual work demands to achieve the school objectives successfully. However, one of the probable explanations could be the principals’ initiative to build a team of old and new teachers in such a way that they learn new things and share each other’s responsibilities.

2. Relationship among the Different Dimensions of Transformational Leadership Competencies, Organizational Work Culture Values and School Effectiveness in Different Management Type of Schools, Separately

Central Government Schools

The correlation matrix of these three variables in central government schools (Table 4) show that all the eight dimensions of transformational leadership competencies and three dimensions of school effectiveness i.e. group functioning, satisfaction and goal integration were found to be significantly and positively correlated with self-realization (the very first dimension of WCV). Along with it, goal integration (the last dimension of SE) also revealed significant and positive relationship on all the dimensions of work culture values and transformational leadership competencies (few at .05 and few at .01 level of significance) except the eighth dimension of TLC i.e. – composed risk taking and efficient. Along with it, status enhancement (WCV) and satisfaction dimension (SE) found significantly and positively correlated with the dimensions of TLC (except effective boundary manager and composed risk taking and efficient behavior; and empowering attitude in case of satisfaction). Rests of the dimensions were not found to be significantly correlated with each other.

Table 4. Inter-Correlation among Transformational Leadership, Work Culture Values & School Effectiveness in Central Government Schools

State Government Schools

If we look at the scenario in state government schools, the correlation matrix (Table 5) shows a significant and positive relationship among all the dimensions of transformational leadership competencies, work culture values and school effectiveness (few at .05 and few at .01 level of significance). Except the dimensions of group functioning and goal integration of SE were not found to be significantly correlated with learning oriented, self-realization and socio-economic support.

Table 5. Inter-Correlation among Transformational Leadership, Work Culture Values & School Effectiveness in State Government Schools

State Aided Schools

Similarly, in state aided schools as well the correlation matrix (Table 6) showed that all the dimensions of SE were found to be significantly and positively correlated with all the dimensions of transformational leadership competencies and work culture values (few at .05 and few at .01 level of significance). Along with it, the first two dimensions of WCV (i.e. self-realization and status enhancement) were also found significantly and positively correlated with all the dimensions of TLC.

Table 6. Inter-Correlation among Transformational Leadership, Work Culture Values & School Effectiveness in State Aided Schools

Private/Unaided Schools

In terms of private schools, the correlation matrix (Table 7) depicted a slightly diverse kind of picture. Like, out of four dimensions of WCV, self-realization showed significant and positive correlation with only two dimensions of TLC (i.e. formal objective, capable and participative). Whereas, sulphitic values show significant and positive correlation with four dimensions of TLC, two at .01 level of significance (i.e. formal and objective, and composed, risk taking and efficient behaviors) and two at .05 level of significance (i.e. capable and participative and effective boundary manager). The rest two dimensions of WCV (i.e. status enhancement and socio economic support) revealed significant and negative correlation with two dimensions of TLC like, learning oriented and effective boundary manager respectively at .05 level of significance. Apart from this, status enhancement (dimension of WCV) was found to be significantly and negatively correlated with two dimensions of SE (i.e. group functioning and satisfaction) at .01 and .05 level of significance respectively. With respect to the dimensions of SE, group functioning and satisfaction turned out to be positive and showed significant relationship with four of the dimensions of TLC (protective and supportive, work appreciation, cooperation and trust, learning oriented and composed, risk taking and efficient behavior) at different levels of significance. Satisfaction is also significantly correlated with one more dimension of TLC i.e. capable and participative. However, the last dimension of SE (i.e. goal integration) showed significant and positive relationship with four dimensions of TLC (i.e. formal objective, capable and participative, effective boundary manager and empowering attitude) and two dimensions of WCV (self-realization and status enhancement) at different levels of significance. Rest of the dimensions were not found to be significantly correlated with each other.

Table 7. Inter-Correlation among Transformational Leadership, Work Culture Values & School Effectiveness in Unaided Schools

Predictors of School Effectiveness

The second objective of this study was to identify the predictors of school effectiveness from the different dimensions of antecedent variables i.e. transformational leadership competencies and organizational work culture values. To explore this, stepwise multiple regressions were computed in all the four different type of management schools separately. To avoid the multi-collinearity among predictors, the regression analysis with co-linearity statistics and variance inflation function (VIF) were calculated.

Central Government Schools

The results of stepwise multiple regression analysis (Table 8) revealed that the total variance in Group Functioning score, 19.4% (R2 = .194) could be explained significantly (F = 6.726, p<.05) by the formal objective dimension (β = .440, p<.05) of transformational leadership competencies. Whereas in relation to work culture values, the total variance in Group Functioning score 40.7% (R2 = .407) could be explained significantly (F = 19.206, p<.001) by self-realization (β = .638, p<.001). This shows that the principals’ behavior of being formal and objective and teachers’ self-realization value turned out to be critical factors in shaping teachers group functioning with their colleagues in central government schools.

Table 8. Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of TLC & WCV on SE in Central Government Schools

For Satisfaction, as dimension of SE (Table 8) results show significant (F = 17.608, p<.001) explanatory impact of relationship with capable and participative dimension (β = .621, p< .001) of TLC that accounts for 38.6% (R2 = .386) of the variance. 41.7% (R2 = .417) variance in Satisfaction is also significantly (F = 20.032, p<.001) explained by the self-realization dimension (β = .646, p<.001) of WCV. This shows that perhaps teachers’ satisfaction is led by their principals’ competency of being capable and participative and self-realization values of teachers in central schools.

In the same line, for the third dimension of SE (Table 8) results revealed that the total variance in Goal Integration score, 45.5% (R2 = .455) could be explained significantly (F = 23.340, p<.001) by the empowering attitude dimension (β = .674, p<.001) of TLC. 57.8% (R2 = .578) variance in Goal Integration is also explained significantly (F = 38.349, p<.001) by the status enhancement (β = .760, p<.001) dimension of WCV. This brings a closer understanding that principals’ empowering attitude and teachers’ status enhancement values perhaps lead to goal integration in central schools.

State Government Schools

If we look at the results in state government schools, the stepwise multiple regression analysis (Table 9) reveals that the total variance in Group Functioning score, 43.9% (R2 = .439) could be explained significantly (F = 24.355, p<.001) by the capable and participative dimension (β = .683, p<.001) of transformational leadership competencies. Whereas in relation to work culture values, the total variance in Group Functioning score 67.9% (R2 = .679) could be explained significantly (F = 56.024, p<.001) by self-realization (β = .822, p<.001). This showed that the principals’ behavior perceived as capable and participative and teachers’ self-realization value combined together leads to group functioning in state government schools.

Table 9. Regression Analysis of TLC & WCV on SE in State Government Schools

Similarly, with respect to Satisfaction, (Table 9) results showed significant (F = 36.608, p<.001) explanatory impact of relationship with capable and participative dimension (β = .755, p< .001) of TLC that accounts for 56.5% (R2 = .565) of the variance. 62.0% (R2 = .620) variance in Satisfaction is also significantly (F = 46.165, p<.001) explained by the status enhancement (β = .789, p<.001) dimension of WCV. This showed that teachers’ satisfaction perhaps was led by their principals’ transformational leadership competency of being perceived as capable and participative and teachers’ work culture value of status enhancement in state government schools.

For the last dimension of SE (Table 9) results revealed that the total variance in Goal Integration score, 45.9% (R2 = .459) could be explained significantly (F = 22.926, p<.001) by the composed, risk taking and efficient dimensions (β = .670, p<.001). 47.4% (R2 = .474) variance in Goal Integration is also explained significantly (F = 24.880, p<.001) by the socio-economic support dimension (β = .684, p<.001) of WCV. This shows that principals’ composed; risk taking and efficient behavior and teachers’ work culture value of socio-economic support perhaps lead to goal integration.

State Aided Schools

In state government schools, the stepwise multiple regression analysis (Table 10) revealed that the total variance in Group Functioning score, 57.3% (R2 = .573) could be explained significantly (F = 39.792, p<.001) by the work appreciation, cooperation and trust (β = .751, p<.001). In relation to work culture values, the total variance in Group Functioning score 42.6% (R2 = .426) could be explained significantly (F = 20.756, p<.001) by self-realization (β = .652, p<.001). This showed that in the state government schools, group functioning is led by the principals’ exhibiting behavior of providing work appreciation, cooperation and trust and also influenced by the teachers’ self-realization value.

Table 10. Regression Analysis of TLC & WCV on SE in State Aided Schools

For Satisfaction dimension of SE, (Table 10) results show significant (F = 27.880, p<.001) explanatory impact of relationship with formal objective (β = .728, p< .001) dimension of TLC that accounts for 53.0% (R2 = .530) of the variance. 76.1% (R2 = .761) variance in Satisfaction is also significantly (F = 88.950, p<.001) explained by the self-realization dimension (β = .872, p<.001) of WCV. This shows that teachers’ satisfaction is led by formal objective and composed, risk taking and efficient dimensions of transformational leadership competencies and teachers’ work culture value of self-realization in state aided schools.

Similarly, for the third dimension of SE (Table 10) results revealed that the total variance in Goal Integration score, 29.6% (R2 = .296) could be explained significantly (F = 11.790, p<.001) by the learning oriented (β = -.544, p<.001) dimensions of TLC. Along with it, 54.7% (R2 = .547) variance in Goal Integration is also explained significantly (F = 33.877, p<.001) by the self-realization (β = .740, p<.001) dimension of WCV. This depicts that principals’ exhibiting behavior of learning oriented competency of transformational leadership along with the self-realization value of teachers’ lead to goal integration in state aided schools.

Private Unaided Schools

Finally, if we look at the results of predicating variables of SE in private unaided schools (Table 11) findings revealed that the total variance in Group Functioning score, 20.2% (R2 = .202) could be explained significantly (F = 7.081, p<.05) by the learning oriented dimension (β = .459, p<.05) of transformational leadership competencies. Whereas in relation to work culture values, the total variance in Group Functioning score 26.8% (R2 = .268) could be explained significantly (F = 10.238, p<.01) but negatively by status enhancement dimension (β = -.517, p<.01). This shows that the learning oriented behavior of principals, works in terms of predicting group functioning in state government schools. Whereas, teachers’ status enhancement value negatively predicts the group functioning of teachers and other colleagues in private schools.

Table 11. Regression Analysis of TLC & WCV on SE in Private Schools

Similarly, with respect to Satisfaction, (Table 11) results show significant (F = 18.626, p<.001) explanatory impact of relationship with learning oriented dimension (β = .632, p< .001) of TLC that accounts for 39.9% (R2 = .399) of the variance. 16.8% (R2 = .168) variance in Satisfaction is also significantly (F = 5.514, p<.05) explained by the status enhancement (β = .412, p<.05) dimension of WCV. This showed that teachers’ satisfaction is led by their principals’ learning oriented behavior of TLC along with the teachers’ work culture value of status enhancement value in private schools.

For the last dimension of SE (Table 11) results reveal that the total variance in Goal Integration score, 33.0% (R2 = .330) could be explained significantly (F = 13.689, p<.001) by the capable and participative (β = .573, p<.01). 51.3% (R2 = .513) variance in Goal Integration is also explained significantly (F = 29.516, p<.001) by the self-realization dimension (β = .716, p<.001) of WCV. This reveals that principals’ capable and participative competency lead to goal integration along with the teachers’ value of self-realization. A comprehensive picture of these predictors could be drawn from the Figure 6.

Figure 6. Predictors of School Effectiveness in Different Management Type of Schools

The broader framework of influencing behavior of principals’ leadership and cultural context determines the immediate daily routine of practices and work culture of a given organization. It helps in regulating the teachers’ behavior in specific ways and in turn influences the school progress and success. Due to different organizational structures, funding patterns, structural arrangements, and working environments, all the four management types of schools differed from one another in the predicting variables, causally related to the effectiveness of schools.

Group functioning

The closer view of regression analysis revealed that different factors of leadership competencies and work culture values predict differently to the various dimensions of SE. Results showed that formal objective competence of principals’ TLC was the significant predictor of teachers’ group functioning in central schools. Principals exhibiting behavior of being formal and objective might be due to the laid down rules, regulations, norms, and clear-cut guidelines provided by the central government (Kendriya Vidyala Sangathan), which helped them in reducing role ambiguity among teachers and in turn enhanced their functioning in group. Another reason could be the culture of trust and commitment which perhaps allowed them to depend on each other and work efficiently in team for the successful accomplishment of school goals.

In state government schools, teachers’ group functioning was found to be predicted significantly by capable-participative dimension. Low mean scores on both the dimensions (capable - participative and group functioning) depicted that principals of such schools were not competent enough to exhibit the behavior of being capable and participative which would have encouraged teachers to function better in groups. In state aided schools, teachers group functioning was predicted by work appreciation, cooperation and trust, and empowering attitude dimensions of TLC. As against this, in private schools, it was significantly predicted by learning oriented dimension of principals’ transformational leadership competencies. This shows that in different cultural setup, principals require different set of transformational leadership competencies to influence teachers in such a way, that they not only allow them to trust on each other but also show coordination and cooperation among group members.

Regarding work culture, self-realization values predicted teachers’ group functioning in all the management types of schools, except in privately managed, which was significantly but negatively predicted by status enhancement dimension of WCV. The reason might be the culture of providing ample opportunities of personal development and growth to teachers. Proper work appreciation, recognition and trust help in enhancing their group effort in almost all the schools. In private schools, However, status enhancement value, negatively predicted teachers’ group functioning in private schools. This shows an inverted negative relationship between status enhancement and group functioning.

The reason might be the job insecurity among teachers in private schools which do not allow them to cherish their status enhancement value at the level of implementation and hinders while working in groups. As Sinha (1990) also stated, that status enhancement and socio-economic support are extrinsic values. They are required in the Indian societies, where people want to get rid of with insecurities and lack of resources, which give a history of failures. This, fear of failure leads to giving importance to socio-economic support and lack of resources lends too much importance to status enhancement (Sinha, 1990).

Satisfaction

Teachers’ satisfaction, as an important indicator of perceived school effectiveness, found significantly predicted by principals’ behavior of being capable and participative, (TLC) in public (central and state) schools, whereas, it was found different in private (aided and unaided) schools. In state aided schools, teachers’ satisfaction was found significantly predicted by principals’ exhibiting behavior of composed, risk taking and efficient and formal objective dimensions, whereas in unaided schools, it was found significantly predicted by learning oriented dimension of transformational leadership. This all indicates that in central and state schools, for higher teacher satisfaction, principals need emphasize more on being capable and participative, by creating the culture of trust. From narratives it was evident that central schools were better in establishing such cultures, due to which there was the high mean scores on both capable – participative and satisfaction dimensions. Against this, they were found lacking in state schools.

Regarding work culture values, self –realization was one factors predicting teachers’ satisfaction significantly in central and state aided schools. This revealed that teachers are satisfied if they get opportunities to utilize their skills and potentials, with proper work appreciation and recognition. Centrally owned schools were high on the mean scores of self – realization dimension, which undoubtedly asserts that teachers of such schools were motivated and driven by their intrinsic work cultural values and working to reap intrinsic rewards for higher satisfaction. Along with it socio-economic support and status enhancement values also predicted satisfaction significantly in state government and private unaided schools.

Goal Integration

Regarding goal integration dimension of SE, different predictors of TLC and WCV were found in different management types of schools. Like, empowering attitude (CGS), learning oriented (SAS), composed, risk taking and efficient (SGS) and capable - participative (UAS) dimensions significantly predicted teachers’ goal integration of perceived school effectiveness. As it is asserted in earlier discussions, that principals were having discrepancies in their ideal and real goals, which might be making it difficult for them to realize those ideal goals into reality and assimilating it into individual goals. The reason for lowest mean scores on goal integration dimension might also be due to the principals’ lack of competence to have clear vision and skills to disseminate or impart it successfully in school members.

Regarding cultural values, self-realization dimension was found as a significant predictor of goal integration in central, state aided and private schools, whereas socio- economic support was found to be a significant predictor of goal integration dimension of school effectiveness. Self-realization is an intrinsic value. In this backdrop, we may assert that teachers who have given more importance to self-realization values have better assimilated their individual goals with organizational goals. We may assume that such teachers are in this teaching profession by their choice rather by default. Or they might have broadened their individual goals in such a way that they fit into the organizational ones or vice versa. In state owned schools, teachers’ individual goals assimilate best with organizational goals if it enhances their socio – economic status, guided by extrinsic values, which was not the scenario in this study.

4. Conclusions

This study clearly demonstrated that principals’ leadership influence and cultural characteristics play a crucial role in predicting perceived school effectiveness. It rejected all the null hypotheses formulated in this study and showed that central and private schools were performing better in terms of exhibiting transformational leadership competencies, work culture values and school effectiveness as compared to state owned schools. Between these two types of schools, centrally owned schools showed highest scores which ultimately helped them in establishing smooth and healthy internal functioning for the success of their school organizations.

Theoretical perspectives considered clarifies, that in school organizations, shaping the culture is the central and important function of principals as leaders. Broadly speaking, school transformation and success depend directly upon the principal’s leadership competencies, which, in turn helps create the necessary work culture conducive to teachers’ motivation, commitment, and performance. A principal’s leadership influence can enhance, encourage and nurture a positive school culture. Thus, leadership traits continue to be studied so that principals can strive for a more comprehensive understanding of how to mould a school culture in a positive way to enhance the school performance.

There are no ultimate panaceas nevertheless, there are some positive and encouraging possibilities. As principals and teachers are the two important wheels of any school organization, influential leadership competencies and high quality teachers may become the hallmark of its success or improved school performance. However, effective leadership is not the result of simply obtaining a position rather possessing the knowledge and understanding of leadership competencies along with personal abilities to implement those skills effectively. Hence, principals as a school leader need notable skills precisely the transformational ones, to produce effective influence and transformations, in our diverse school environments.

In any educational system, teachers are the most important group of professionals, the source of existence, energy and enrichment for our nation’s future. In the process of social reengineering and national construction, quality teachers and their teaching could be the strong agents. They play an important role in the achievement of desired transformation and improvement of the educational system. In ancient times, teachers occupied a predominant role in the ‘man making process. The society looked upon the ‘Acharya’ for their valuable suggestions and guidance. Due to globalization and technological changes, teaching in the modern era has become a challenging profession which requires good command on subject knowledge, effective skills of teaching through different ways and above all high moral quotient.

If schools are to become more effective, the investment in teachers’ efficiency and proficiency must increase along with principals’ enhanced leadership skills. It is a challenge for school principals and educators to promote and establish such programs that may influence teacher skills and abilities with a confidence that school effectiveness will also be enhanced. As new materials, new buildings and facilities, new organizational schemes, new curricular packages and arrangements, new delivery systems and new programs will not guarantee school effectiveness, we need to redefine the existing ones. We need to redefine the patterns of working, teaching and learning with better, healthy and positive school culture, which may provide better opportunities for growth and development to both teachers and students and other staff members. Hence, in an Indian school, the welfare of the teacher and principals should be of supreme concern who in turn must be sensitive to an entire body of unique and special factors of schools, which equate to success in that particular educational environment.

5. Implications

This study highlights that principals’ leadership competencies, teachers’ work culture values and their perceived school effectiveness had a variety of implications in policy and practice specifically in the context of central and state government schools. Now at this juncture we need a serious consideration of how these findings may be meaningfully understood and applied to enhance principals’ leadership behavior, cultural practices and teachers’ work life. The following implications can be made based on the findings for the school included -

1. Based on the results of different patterns of predictors in different schools, it may be implied that principals’ as a transformational leader may try using the different competencies, such as being capable – participate and formal – objective, relatively, more frequently.

2. Understanding teachers’ professional work values are also important, as it may help the school administration to identify teachers in a holistic framework and align values with educational goals.

3. Supportive work culture of appreciation, cooperation and trust may provide better opportunities to teachers to align their self-realization values. By providing better and trustworthy working conditions, teachers will be more satisfied to work in the institution they are working.

4. We may use the findings of this study while selecting, recruiting, or training school principals as the awareness of teachers’ perceptions and expectations could lead to better school administration and principal-teacher relations, though it is a daunting task in need of employment scenario in our country.

5. These results may also be helpful to the authorities who are responsible for planning and making educational policies and offering pre-service and in-service training programs for the prospective and present school principals.

6. In order to function effectively, school principals need to enhance their leadership competencies vital to organizational effectiveness.

7. For teachers’ overall satisfaction, principals need to create an open and collegial work environment, in which teachers may feel good about their work and jobs. They may able to expresses their genuine feelings and opinions, and cooperate with each other on important decisions. Precisely, it should be a culture of ‘asking’ rather than ‘telling’ (Schein, 2013).

8. If schools are to attract and retain their best teachers, those aspects of the job that influence teacher satisfaction and motivation must be considered. Focusing on intrinsic values may facilitate teachers to utilize their skills to the fullest and help them to enhance group functioning, satisfaction and goal integration as major components of perceived school effectiveness.

9. Positive feedback and guidance to teachers are also important to make them aware of their duties and work settings, as it may help them to adjust with the school conditions and cultural practices effectively.

10. Clear-cut guidelines and messages are essential for reducing role conflict and enhancing the clarity of institutional goals, so that teachers may have better compatibility and integration with their individual and school goals.

11. For policy makers and higher educational authorities, it is obligatory to understand the causes behind teachers’ entry into the profession and values they hold. Because, if there is a possibility of making a contribution in the growth and learning of the organization or students, it could be the most encouraging element when attempting to improve school effectiveness, keeping in view the moral nature of organizations.

12. Above all, schools must be ensured with the optimal availability and utilization of basic sanitation, health and teaching – learning facilities.